Five Forces of Competition Essay Example for Free

Five Forces of Competition Essay Air travel has changed the way people live and experience the world today. The airline industry is a strategic sector that plays a fundamental role in the globalization of other industries since it promotes tourism, world trade, foreign investment and, therefore, leads to economic growth. However, all airlines within the industry operate in a highly dynamic environment where various legal, social, technological and economic forces interact with each other, thus influencing their decisions and actions In the industry where airlines can face severe financial distress due to oil crisis, recessions and terrorist attacks, In order to survive, as well as succeed, the business needs to assess its competitive environment and identify key factors that may influence its actions (Porter, 1998, p. 5). The airline industry is very competitive and Michael Porter’s five-forces model can be used to analyse the intensity of the competition and the profitability of this industry. Porter’s five forces model is a business unit strategy tool which is used to make an analysis of the value of an industry structure (Hubbard, 2004, pg 35). The analysis is made by the identification of 5 fundamental competitive forces. These include: Threat of new entrants is high  One of the forces identified by this model is the threat of new entrants which refers to the possibility of new competitors entering the industry and undermining the profits of the established businesses. In the world today, the airline industry is so saturated that there is hardly space for a newcomer to enter the market. The biggest for this is the cost of entry. The airline industry is one of the most expensive industries, due to the cost of buying and leasing aircrafts, safety and security measures, customer service and manpower. Other barriers to entry which will recess new comers into the airline industry include Government restrictions and high capital costs to develop new airlines. However, the entry barriers for new airlines is lower today since the Australian domestic airline market was deregulated in 1990. This has produced far greater competition than before deregulation in most markets. The deregulation has allowed Jetstar and Tiger Airways enter the market and reduce the market share for Virgin Blue and with the added competition, together with pricing freedom, means that there is a major onstraint on profitability for the airline industry. Moreover if borrowing is cheap the likelihood of more airlines entering the industry is higher. Bargaining power of Buyers is high The bargaining power of buyers is another force that can affect the competitive position of a company (Porter, 1998, p. 48). This refers to the amount of pressure customers can place on a business, thus, affecting its prices, volume and profit potential (Porter, 1998, p. 45). The various airlines flying from the Gold Coast airport are competing for the same customer, which also results in strengthening the buyer power. Individuals wishing to travel to and from the Coolangatta airport are presented with various choices when selecting an airline but price is usually the most important factor, especially for students and families. Hence, the bargaining power of customers in the airline industry is very high since they are price sensitive and search for the best deals available. Virgin Blue attracts travellers that are price sensitive by offering them low fares and those that are convenience oriented by providing them with frequent flights. Qantas on the other hand has created a frequent flyer program to create switching costs which may be a significant factor to a traveller when choosing which airline to fly with. Bargaining Power of Suppliers is high Suppliers can also exercise considerable pressure on a company by increasing prices or lowering the quality of products offered which are mainly dominated by Boeing and Airbus. The bargaining power of suppliers depends on supplier concentration, substitute supplies, switching costs, threat of forward integration and buyer information. However, other suppliers who work with the airline such as the providers of on board snacks do not have the same bargaining power as they are a larger industry which allows for Virgin Blue to have a choice over who they are purchasing from. Virgin Blue will purchase their on board snacks from the supplier which is the most economic so Virgin Blue can make a higher profit margin from the goods when they are sold. Threat of Substitutes is low for international carriers/ little higher for short distance The availability and threat of substitutes is another factor that can affect competition within the airline industry. It refers to the likelihood that customers may switch to another product or service that performs similar functions (Stahl, M, Grigsby D 1997, pg 145). Substitutes for air travel include travelling by train, bus or car to the desired destination. The degree of this threat depends on various factors such as money, convenience, time and personal preference of travellers. The competition from substitutes is affected by the ease of with which buyers can change over to a substitute. A key consideration is usually the buyers switching costs, however due to their low fare non-stop flights, Virgin Blue, Jetstar and Tiger airways can lure both price sensitive and convenience oriented travellers away from these substitutes. Competitive Rivalry is high  Industries that are very competitive generally earn low profits and returns since the cost of competition is high. The airline industry is usually characterized by the cut-throat competition that exists among the rival airlines due to its low cost nature. Since the carriers are involved in a constant struggle to take away the market share from each other, industry growth is average and as it is easy for buyers to switch between the airline companies, depending on price, the rivalry is increased. Rivalry is also high in the airline industry due to high fixed costs, as much of the cost of a flight is fixed, there is a great opportunity for airlines to sell unsold seats cheaply, which resolve in pricing wars between the airlines (Hubbard, 2004, pg 38). The airlines are continually competing against each other in terms of prices, technology, in-flight entertainment, customer services and many more areas. The net result of this competition between companies is an overall slow market growth rate. In conclusion we can understand that the airline industry is very competitive and Michael Porters five-forces model can be used to explain why the potential for returns is so low in this industry. Firstly, the threat of new companies entering the industry is high and the entry barriers are low. Secondly, the bargaining power of customers is high since they are price sensitive and search for the best deals. The third force, bargaining position of suppliers, is strong since they are concentrated and this limits the control airlines have over suppliers to reduce prices and earn higher profits. The availability and threat of substitutes is another factor that can affect a company’s competitive position. However, the degree of this threat depends on various factors such as time, money, convenience and personal preferences of travellers. The final force in Porters model is competitive rivalry between the companies within an industry. Cut-throat competition exists among the airlines and since there is a constant struggle for market share, the over all profit potential of this industry is low.

Business description and market analysis for cadbury

Business description and market analysis for cadbury Cadbury is a global manufacturer, marketer and distributor of branded confectionery. The companys confectionery business operates chocolate, gum and sugar categories. The company along with its subsidiaries primarily operates in the Eurozone, the US, Central and Southern America, Australia and other parts of Asia Pacific. Chocolate business represents the biggest business segment of the company with around 46% of the overall revenues FY2008. The companys chocolate business is carried out on a regional basis according the tastes of the consumers in each market. The company operates its business through four business segments namely: Britain, Ireland, Middle East and Africa (BIMA), Americas, Europe, and Asia Pacific. Britain and Ireland (BI) is the largest business unit in the Group. The company has strong market position in the UK (30% market share in FY2008), and Ireland (42%). The companys main markets in Middle East and Africa include South Africa, Botswana, Swaziland, Namibia, Kenya, Egypt, Lebanon, Morocco, Nigeria, and Ghana. The company American business comprises the US, Canada and Mexico, three of the largest confectionery markets in the world, and extends through Central America and the Caribbean. The company also has its operations in South American countries including Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, Colombia and Peru. The company is the leading player in South America with a market share of nearly 20%, with core strengths in gum and candy. In Europe, the company has significant gum and candy businesses, with strong gum market shares in the majority of Western Europe, Scandinavia, Turkey and Russia. The companys chocolate business is concentrated in Poland, Russia and France.The companys biggest European operating unit is in France. The companys Asian businesses are concentrated in India, Malaysia, Thailand and China. The companys key brands in these regions include Cadbury Dairy Milk, Bournvita, Halls, Eclairs/Choclairs, Clorets, and Dentyne. In the Pacific regions the companys operations are primarily located in Australia, New Zealand and Japan. Cadbury has a leading position in Australia with an overall 30% market share. While in New Zealand, the company holds a market share of around 41% in FY2008. 3.2 HISTORY Cadbury Schweppes (which was split into: Cadbury plc; and Dr pepper Snapple Group in May 2008) was actually formed in 1969 by the merger of Schweppes and Cadbury Group. Over the years, Cadbury Schweppes expanded its business through organic growth and acquisitions. In 1982, it acquired Motts, which was engaged in the production of apple juice and sauce. The company further strengthened its portfolio of key brands through the purchase of Canada Dry (1986), Trebor (1989), and Bassett (1989). In the 1990s, Cadbury Schweppes acquired 14 more companies, including the US soda giant Dr Pepper/7 UP (1995). Cadbury acquired Snapple Beverage Group in 2000. In the same year, the company also made acquisitions of Hollywood, and Kraft Foods in France, and Wuxi Leaf Confectionery in China to strengthen its chewing gum portfolio. Other acquisitions in the year included Spring Valley Juice and Wave flavored milk in Australia; and Mauna LaI tropical juice drink in the US. In the following year, Cadbury Schweppes acquired Pernod Ricards soft drinks brands and businesses in Europe, North America and Australia. Also in 2001, Cadbury Schweppes acquired the Slush Puppie, a frozen, non-carbonated beverages firm; and Carteret, a contract packer mainly of Snapple. The company also purchased La Casera, Spains third largest soft drinks manufacturer. In 2002, Snapple Beverages, a subsidiary of Cadbury Schweppes, purchased Nantucket Nectars, a producer of premium high juice content drinks. In the same year, the company acquired Brau und Brunnens 72% interest in the Apollinaris Schweppes joint venture in Germany. In 2003, Cadbury completed the acquisition of Adams Confectionery from Pfizer with its brands included Halls, Trident, Dentyne and the Bubbas bubblegum range. In the same year, Cadbury Schweppes main UK operating arm, the Cadbury Trebor Bassett division, announced the closure of two of its factories located in Greater Manchester and Chesterfield. In 2005, the company invested  £40 million (approximately $74.2 million) at its Bournville factory in Birmingham, UK to meet the growing demand for Cadbury Dairy Milk. In the following year, Cadbury sold its business division of Europe Beverages. The company fully acquired the Dr Pepper/Seven Up Bottling Group in the same year. In 2007, Cadbury Schweppes acquired the Southeast-Atlantic Beverage, the second largest independent bottler in the US, by Americas Beverages. In the same year, Cadbury Schweppes acquired Intergum, the leading Turkish gum business. In the same year, Cadbury Schweppes announced its plan to split itself into two separate businesses focusing on chocolate and confectionery on the one hand and the US soft drinks on the other. In February 2008, Cadbury Schweppes sold its Monkhill business, a manufacturer of sugar confectionery and popcorn for the UK market. In May 2008, Cadbury Schweppes completed its demerger and was split into: Cadbury plc, the new holding company of the worldwide confectionery operations and the Australian beverages business; and Dr Pepper Snapple Group (DPS), the new holding company of the Americas beverages business. Further in December 2008, Cadbury plc sold its Schweppes Beverages business in Australia to Asahi Breweries for a total consideration of approximately  £550 million ($1,020 million). In May 2009, Cadbury Schweppes Overseas, a wholly-owned subsidiary of Cadbury purchased 4% of the share capital of Kent Gida Maddeleri, a Turkey base supplier of confectionary products, from Tahincioglu Holding. In September 2009, Cadbury rejected a  £10,200 billion (approximately $18,922 million) offer from Kraft Foods to combine the two businesses and create a global manufacturer of snacks, confectionery and quick meals. 3.3 MAJOR PRODUCTS AND SERVICES Cadbury is an international manufacturing and marketing company of branded confectionery products. The companys key products and brands include the following: Products: Chocolates Candy Candy bars Chewing gum The key chocolate brands of the company include Caramilk, Cherry Ripe, Crunchie, Five Star, Freddo, Mieszanka Wedlowska, Milk Tray, Moro, Mr. Big, Old Gold, and Perk. The company also offers a cocoa based food drink beverage under Bournvita brand name. Gum business offers chewing gum with a number of flavors including strawberry splash, strong mint, peppermint and watermelon wave. The business contributed around 33% of the companys overall sales in FY2008. The key gum brands of the company include Bubblicious, Falim, First, Stride, and V6. The company offers a number of functional candies including cough drops, indulgent candy such as premium toffees. The company offers its candy products in a number of flavors including American hard gums, mints, sherbet lemons, pear drops, everton mints, imperials, mint creams, and fruit, lemon, and strawberry. The key brands of the company under this category include Bassetts, Kent, Maynards, Pascall, Sour Patch, and Swedish Fish. 3.4 CADBURY, INDIA 3.4.1 COMPANY BACKGROUND à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Cadbury India is a subsidiary of Cadbury Plc, with Cadbury Schweppes holding a 97.61% stake in its local subsidiary. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The company operates in the hot drinks and packaged food industries. In packaged food it is present in confectionery, biscuits and dairy products. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The companys strategy is to cater to all price segments and consumer groups have a strong presence across the major impulse and indulgence categories in India. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ It has national coverage with manufacturing and distribution facilities in all four regions. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ In March 2009 the company re-launched Cadburys Perk with a new image, and employed up and coming bollywood actress as its new brand ambassador. The Perk brand portfolio was also extended with the launch of Cadburys Perk Poppers a selfline positioned as direct competition to Nestlà ©s Munch Pop Chocs. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The company launched Cadbury Bournville Fine Dark Chocolate from its parent companys international brand portfolio in India in October 2008. The company also launched Cadburys Dairy Milk Shots in late à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ In a bid to cater to all consumer groups, the company launched Cadbury Lite in February 2008. This is a smooth milk chocolate with no added sugar, which is suitable for diabetics. 3.4.2 PRODUCTION à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The company supplies the local market through its local production units. Cadbury India has five factories, located in Thane, Pune, Induri and Malanpur in West India, and Baddi in North India. Cocoa is one of the major raw materials used by the company, and is procured mainly from plantations in South India, in the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The company exports its products to Sri Lanka, Dubai, the US and the Maldives. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Cadbury India is not known to be involved in third party manufacturing. 3.4.3 COMPETITIVE POSITIONING à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The company ranked seventh in packaged food in India in 2008 with a 3% value share. The company is the leading player in confectionery, with its Cadburys Dairy Milk brand accounting for over 13% of total confectionery value at the end of the review period. The companys other brands, such as 5 Star and Cadburys Gems, have been favourites across several generations, and the company is highly visible in the mass media channels with its tagline of kuch meetha ho jaye (lets have something sweet). à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The company is also very active with media and consumer promotions, as well as flavour innovations for its malt-based hot drinks brand Bournvita. While its presence in biscuits is very low it has represented the sole driver of sales in filled biscuits with Bytes. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The company is a key innovator in packaged food in India as it has pioneered several new product concepts, including Chocki and Bytes, and has been active in flavour innovation with products such as Fruity Gems and Bournvita 5 Star Magic. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The company strives to maintain its leadership in confectionery in India and expanded its presence in Confectionery in 2007 with the launch of Bubbaloo its first gum product in India. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The companys presence in packaged food in India is mainly concentrated in confectionery, where it is present across almost all categories. Its product portfolio outside confectionery is limited to flavoured powder milk drinks and filled biscuits. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The company is mainly present in well-established and mature categories in India. However, several of the categories in which it is present, including malt-based drinks, filled biscuits and chocolate confectionery, are fast growing with double digit constant value forecast CAGRs. Moreover, the company heavily leverages new product launches and brand re-launches to boost growth rates in the categories in which it is already well established. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The company has a very large product portfolio within confectionery. However, its brand portfolio is very limited in biscuits and flavoured powder milk drinks. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The company is positioned in the standard and premium price segments in confectionery and in the premium price segment in biscuits and flavoured powder milk drinks. 3.4.4 SWOT ANALYSIS Cadbury is a global manufacturer, marketer and distributor of branded confectionery products. The company has a strong market presence across all its operating regions. It is the market leader in the global confectionery sector with a market share of 10.5%. Strong global market position would boost the revenues and profitability of the company. However, the rising raw material prices and intense competition would affect the companys market share in certain geographies. A very peculiar characteristic of the chocolate consumers is that there is an overwhelming awareness among the users about different brands that exist in the market. There is however very little brand loyalty in users. People always are ready to try out new brands and keep on switching from one brand to another. This behaviour poses lot of challenge, as the job of designing of marketing strategies becomes two fold. Firstly non-users need to be converted to users and more importantly the existing customers should be retained. Organisational analysis of Cadburys Organizational analysis identifies the knowledge, skills, and abilities that employees will need in the future as the organization and their jobs change. Organizational analysis is a holistic approach which involves looking at the entire organization; the overall structure, the departments, functions, processes, jobs, the interplay between groups, system dynamics, human energy alignment, and other issues. It explores what is as compared to what should be and the gaps between the two. Strength Cadbury is a company, which is reputed internationally as the topmost chocolate provider in the world. The brand is well known to people they can easily identify it from others. Users have a positive perception about the qualities of the brand. Cadbury main strength is Dairy milk. Dairy milk is the most consumed chocolate in India. By using popular models like Cyrus Brocha, Preety Zinta and others Cadburys has managed to portray a young and sporty image, which has resulted in converting buyers of other brands to become its staunch loyalists. By roping in Amitabh Bachchan as its brand ambassador, Cadbury has succeeded in portraying itself as an evergreen, credible, trustworthy and eternal product. Cadbury has well adjusted itself to Indian custom. With the brilliant marketing campaign of Kuch Meetha Ho Jaye on every small or big family or social occasion, Cadbury has been able to create the notion that any occasion has to go along with a Cadbury. It has also catered to all the age groups across various demographics. It has properly repositioned itself in India whenever required i.e. from children to adults, togetherness bar to energizing bar for young ones etc. Weaknesses There is lack of penetration in the rural market where people tend to dismiss it as a high end product. It is mainly found in urban and semi-urban areas. It has been relatively high priced brand, which is turning the price conscious customer away. People avoid having their chocolate thinking about the egg ingredients. Cadbury offers a limited variety of products as opposed to other leading competitive brands, e.g. Amul and Nestle that offer an array of products like biscuits, dairy products, etc. One of the major raw materials i.e. cocoa has to be imported, leading to bunched imports and higher inventory. Majority of the markets in India are not air conditioned, hence cannot store chocolates, at least during hot summers, which limits market access. Environmental Analysis of Cadburys Opportunities The chocolate market has seen one of the greatest increases in the recent times (almost @ 30%). There is a lot of potential for growth and a huge population who do not eat chocolates even today that can be converted as new users. Infrastructure and potential to expand (other countries and markets) Narrowing down on their most popular and highest selling items (dairy milk) to increase sales (including brand ambassadors) Venture into new segments individually or jointly (food and beverages) Introduce their foreign products in India Targeting urban areas and developing sectors- by working on availability and affordability Using information and technology to bring efficiency in logistics and distribution. Though small now, fast growing modern trade with A/c and good ambience suitable for Cadbury products offers huge growth opportunity. Increase related category offerings like snacks (Cadbury bytes) Introduce Schweppes non carbonic drinks in India. Increase the chewing gum market. Threat There exists no brand loyalty in the chocolate market and consumers frequently shift their brands. New brands are coming and existing brands are introducing new variants to add up to an already overcrowded market. Competitors could use scandals in the past and company problems against the company (worm scandal). This could put the reputation of the company at stake. Stiff competition in the confectionery segment. (Amul, Nestle, etc.) New competition including global majors like mars Hersheys expected to enter the fray due to opening up of the Indian economy. The company has large exposure to foreign currency exchange rate risk, mainly on account of imported cocoa beans and cocoa butter in US dollars and Pound Sterling. Significant increase in the food snacks segment offerings which means high indirect competition with low cost local players as well as high brand recognition global players. As Cadbury produces chocolates and a few related products, effective management of all the areas proves to be difficult at times. Trends of purchase may change with the ever-changing taste preference of consumers. Changing restrictions and rules from Government quality control boards may result in pressure on the production of the company cost increase Cadbury is exposed to rise in the cost of cocoa beans, dairy products and other vital ingredients. Increase in modern trade will increase competition especially from global players will also increase cost pressure thru malls negotiating higher discounts from suppliers. 3.4.5 PEST ANALYSIS Demographic factor 1. Population growth:-chocolates have wide impact on population growth. 2. Educational groups:-target population is all age groups but the education group will have more influence on it. As this is used as 2 celebrate events such as birthday, days. 3. Population age mix:-both men and women would like 2 prefer dairy milk. 4. Household patterns:-consumption and need is according to the household patterns. 5. Population age group: Preschools:-5% School-age: 15% Teens:-40% 25-65:-38% 65+:- 2% Political factor Increase in the tax rate by the government on chocolates will force a customer to pay more for it An increase/decrease in inflation rate can affect the FMCG sector and thereby also increase/decrease the price of Cadbury products Economic In festival seasons the demand of chocolates increases. Willingness to buy Demand of chocolates depends on the persons willingness to buy, which in turn is affected by the persons needs and requirements. Taste and preference Cadbury has wide variety of products and a particular product like lets say Dairy milk is also differentiated in many ways such as fruit and nut, raisins, almond. So the demand will be according to the taste and preferences of the variety. Income Variation in income will affect positively or negatively on Cadbury products. Sale is directly proportional to the income of an individual keeping other factors constant. Social Social factors includes such as norms, beliefs, values of the company. Cadbury has created a positive impact on customers in terms of belief and values. Advertisement Dairy milk, a brand of Cadbury renews its advertisement in every 6 months. The advertisements convey that it can be consumed by people of all ages. The type of advertisement also affects the buying interest on customers. They get known about new products and variety. Technological Milk quality can be improved much by technology. Refrigeration power can be improved by new technology so that cold storage product such as dairy milk and other milk products can be stored well and for a longer duration. 3.4.6 COMPANY FACTFILE Corporate Summary Cadbury India Ltd is a subsidiary of Cadbury Schweppes Plc, with Cadbury Schweppes holding a stake in excess of 90% in its local subsidiary. The company was incorporated in 1948 and formerly called Hindustan Cocoa Products. It has four factories located in Thane, Induri and Malanpur in West India and Baddi in North India. The production facilities in India are not only used for domestic production but also for the export of finished products to Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Dubai, Ghana and the Maldives. 3.5 CADBURY AFTER KRAFT Wider geographic reach but still developed markets bias à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢The acquisition of Cadbury provided Krafts confectionery operations with a better balanced geographic mix between developed and developing markets, although the share of combined North American and Western European retail value sales remained at 55%. However, its exposure has increased in North America and decreased in Western Europe. Competition in both developed regions is fierce from well-established, domestic confectionery conglomerates, such as Mars/Wrigley and Hershey in North America, and Nestlà © and Ferrero in Western Europe. Market gaps to fill in emerging regions à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Krafts Asia-Pacific confectionery revenues in 2008 were just above US$100 million, and with the integration of Cadbury it is expected to exceed US$1.4 billion. However, over 50% of this retail value is generated in just two national markets: Japan and India. China, the regions most attractive confectionery market accounts, for around 8% of the joint entitys confectionery revenues. Although China is forecast to grow by a more modest rate than India, at a CAGR of 4% over 2009-2014, in absolute value terms it makes up over 50% of the Asia-Pacific confectionery market growth over the period. The next step in Krafts strategy should be to focus on strengthening its position in the Chinese market, potentially with further acquisitions/partnerships to gain a larger slice of this dynamic market.

Correlation Between Mental Illness and Violence and Crime Essay

Literature Analysis and Research Proposal of the Correlation between Mental Illness and Violence and Crime Over the past few decades, many researches have strived to test and explain the correlation between violence and crime and mental illness. Moore and Hiday (2006) assert that up 22% of inmates has a mental illness, sometimes containing more mental illness patients than many psychiatric units. Due to these statistics it is evident how important it is to understand the causes of the correlations between crime and violence and mental disorders. This proposal wishes to explain and understand the possible correlation and the reasons for such correlation between mental health illnesses and violence and crime. Further research to test these theories of crime and mental disorders will also be presented. Crime can be described combination between both behavior and mental factors. This will prove incredibly crucial in the definition of crime in relation to mental illness. Many of those that commit crimes are not convicted due to their illness so it is important to note, for the purpose of this analysis, that all illegal activity is considered crime, regardless of conviction (Monahan and Steadman 1983). It is evident that those with mental illnesses have an increased likelihood of committing crimes. It is important to note, however, that not all people with mental illnesses commit crimes or violent behavior so a cause is not evident. Substance abuse, a mental disorder, is also seen as a large risk in violent behavior (Silver 2006). Hiday (1995) asks the questions of the direction of this correlation. Does mental illness lead to violence or is it vice versa? THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS Silver (2006) asserts the importance of using t... ...s.† Law and Human Behavior 30(6):659-674. Powell, Thomas A., John C. Holt and Karen M. Fondacaro. 1997. â€Å"The Prevalence of Mental Illness among Inmates in a Rural State.† Law and Human Behavior 21(4):427-438. Robbins, Pamela Clark, John Monahan and Eric Silver. 2003. â€Å"Mental Disorder, Violence, and Gender.† Law and Human Behavior 27(6):561-571. Silver, Eric. 2006. â€Å"Understanding the Relationship between Mental Disorder and Violence: The Need for a Criminological Perspective.† Law and Human Behavior 30(6):685-706. Silver, Eric and Brent Teasdale. 2005. â€Å"Mental Disorder and Violence: An Examination of Stressful Life Events and Impaired Social Support.† Social Problems 52(1):62-78. Walsh, Zach and David S. Kosson. 2007. â€Å"Psychopathy and Violent Crime: A Prospective Study of the Influence of Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity.† Law and Human Behavior 31(2):209-229.

Journey of Self-Discovery in Thomas Pynchons The Crying of Lot 49 Ess

Journey of Self-Discovery in Thomas Pynchons' The Crying of Lot 49 Â   Thomas Pynchons' The Crying of Lot 49 challenges the readers' perception of the world by enfolding his readers, through a variety of means, within the intricate workings of his narrative. It centers around would be heroine Oedipa Maas whose life is turned upside down when she discovers that she has been made executor of the estate of old flame and entrepreneur Pierce Inverarity. When she is imposed upon to travel to the fictional city of San Narcisco, where Inverarity is said to have numerous real estate holdings, in order to carry out her task, Oedipa stumbles upon a muted post horn; the first of many clues leading her deep into the impenetrable conspiracy surrounding Trystero, an underground postal system shrouded in mystery and intrigue; opening her eyes to an alternative way of life. This post modern work of literature infuses dark humor and irony instigating a metamorphosis of intellectually challenging material; subsequently luring us, his readers who have unknowingly become a part of the conspiracy, into the methodical chaos of The Crying of Lot 49. Well known for incorporating the basic ideas of philosophy and physics into all of his writings, Pynchon states that the "measure of the world is its entropy" (The Grim Phoenix, pg.2); an assertion that extends into the worlds he has created within the covers of his books. The structure of observation that Pynchon has constructed for the viewing of his creation has two distinct levels focused on those of his characters, particularly Oedipa Maas, who's world is restricted to the confines of the composition and also that of the reader who stands on the outside looking in; but who is also affected by (h... ... our inability to interact personally with the characters in the book, are bound to a bewildered cicerone who cannot see well enough to point us in the right direction. Although Oedipa never uncovers' the hidden truth as to whether or not there really exist a statewide conspiracy involving Trystero, in the end she gives herself over to the paranoia innate to never knowing for sure. Like the reader she has come to the conclusion that it would be a better practice to know that she's paranoid and accept it as a part of life in that society, then to deny its existence and live in doubt for the rest of her life. Choosing to embrace the new self she has unearthed in her journey, like the reader Oedipa is reintroduced to the world at large and with eyes wide open. Works Cited: Pynchon, Thomas. The Crying of Lot 49. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc. 1965.

All the Pretty Horses Essay -- essays papers

All the Pretty Horses John Grady Cole, the last in a long line of west Texas ranchers, is, at sixteen, poised on the sorrowful, painful edge of manhood. When he realizes the only life he has ever known is disappearing into the past and that cowboys are as doomed as the Comanche who came before them, he leaves on a dangerous and harrowing journey into the beautiful and utterly foreign world that is Mexico. In the guise of a classic Western, All the Pretty Horses is at its heart a lyrical and elegiac coming-of-age story about love, friendship, and loyalty that will leave John Grady, and the reader, changed forever. When his mother decides to sell the cattle ranch he has grown up working, John Grady Cole and his friend Lacey Rawlins set out on horseback for Mexico, a land free of the fences and highways that have begun to invade west Texas, a land where the boys are not able to read the look in a man's eye. As they approach the Rio Grande, they are joined by the youthful and mysterious Jimmy Blevins, wh ose fine horse, hot-blooded temper, and talent with a pistol are as certain...

Wine Analysis of Fining Agents Chemistry

CHEMISTRY-WINE MAKING| Investigating the effectiveness of common fining agents on homemade fruit wine with respect to Turbidity, Sediment level, Ph and Alcohol content. | | Year 12 Chemistry| Extended Experimental InvestigationA comparison of chemical flocculation agents| Mario Mitov| Mrs Cullen 2011| | Contents: 1. 0- Abstract 2. 0- Introduction/Background 3. 0- Aim 4. 0- Hypothesis 5. 0- Safety analysis 6. 0- Equipment and Materials 7. 0- Procedures/Methods . 1- Initial wine making procedure 8. 2- Addition of clearing agents including ratio conversion 8. 3- PH testing 8. 4- Vinometer testing 8. 5- Hydrometer testing 8. 6- Turbidity testing (tube) 8. 7- Sediment level measurement 8. 8- Electric conductivity (EC) testing 8. 9- EC conversion to TDS 8. 10- Alcohol titration method 8. 11- Alcohol titration calculations (refer to journal) 8. 0- Results/ Data Analysis 9. 12- Graph1. PH over time 9. 13- Graph2. Alcohol %v/v over time 9. 14- Graph3. Sediment level over time 9. 15- Graph4. D ifference in sediment level over time 9. 6- Graph5. Turbidity over time 9. 17- Graph6. Electrical conductivity over time 9. 0- Discussion 10. 0- Conclusion 11. 0- Appendices 12. 0- References 13. 0- Special Acknowledgments 1. 0-Abstract: The construction of this EEI was conducted in accordance to the term 2 context (Wine: an artful process). This report is intended to present the experimental and analytical aspects of wine chemistry with focus on fining agents. By testing these fining agents on wine samples, their overall effectiveness will be observed and discussed with respect to pH, Turbidity, Sediment level etc.This will help draw a valid conclusion as to the fining agent that has the greatest clarification effects on the tested wines and to what extent. 2. 0- Introduction: The ancient process of winemaking has captivated the human civilisation for thousands of years. Archaeological findings have shown that the earliest production of wine can be traced back to 8000BC in the regi on of modern day Georgia, Iran and Armenia (Merveonur, M. 2011). Since then the art of vinification has been continually evident throughout history with its significance highlighted in many of the world’s greatest cultures.Take for example the ancient Egyptians of third millennia BC that used wine for sacred ceremonies or the ancient Greeks that traditionally conducted symposiums (social parties) by drinking wine in large groups (Biers, W. 1980). Throughout the ages wine has undoubtabley been valued for its significance in society, culture and even religion, with its importance still prevalent in the modern world. In Australia, the exportation of wine currently contributes an astounding $6 billion dollars to the nation’s economy (Adams, P. 2005).In fact, Australia is recognised as the fourth largest exporter of wine in the world. The country’s eight constitutive states all commercially produce wine of high quality with vineyards occupying approximately 160,000 h ectares throughout Australia (Wine Australia, 2010). States such as Victoria and South Australia are internationally renowned for producing highly exquisite wines that undergo the finest vinification. The process of producing wine is one that involves multitudinous techniques and requires a thorough scientific understanding referred to as Oenology.Oenology is the modern study of winemaking encompassing everything from the initial fruit growth to the extensive chemistry behind the entire process (Boulton, R. 1996). Vinification ultimately consists of many biochemical processes that must be carefully monitored and controlled to ensure success. The primary chemical process involved in any wine is the initial fermentation which is responsible for the formation of ethanol. During this stage, common fruit carbohydrates such as glucose and fructose are converted to alcohol through anaerobic yeast respiration (Fugelsang, C. 1997).Ultimately, the yeast which are facultative fungal organisms provide enzymes that break down sugar molecules while releasing Ethanol and Carbon Dioxide as by-products through the exothermic reaction: C6H1206 —>2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2 + 115kj/mol. Winemakers will usually stop the fermentation process once a desired alcohol level is achieved however the fermentation can naturally stop after reaching a certain level of alcohol that subsequently becomes toxic to the yeast thus killing them (Smith, D. 2009). Once fermentation is over, many wines may display signs of turbidity or cloudiness.This is due to suspended particulates such as proteins, tannins, phenols or dead yeast cells that cause haziness in wine when not removed. These particles can precipitate out of the wine naturally under the influence of gravity however this is a lengthy process and those that want fast results rely on chemical clarification. Chemicals for the purpose of wine clarification are known as fining or flocculation agents and are widely used in the wine industry. These agents are commonly derived from Earths, Proteins, Carbons, Synthetic polymers, Polysaccharides and other substances (Zoecklein, B. 988). It is extremely important that a commercial wine be cleared of any suspended impurities so that it appeals to the consumer. Fining agents generally clarify the wine in three different methods including electrostatic attraction, absorption or enzymatic break down (Main, M. 1995). The most common method however is through electrostatic attraction as this is displayed by the majority of fining agents. Theoretically the suspended particles in wine all carry a corresponding electrical charge therefore by dding a fining agent of the opposite charge the particles adsorb to the surface of the fining molecule forming heavy clumps (refer to appendix figure 1). The clumps rapidly sink to the bottom due to their high density relative to that of the wine (Guerra, B. 2008). Ultimately, three fining agents were selected as test subjects for the experiment that w as to be conducted. These agents include: Bentonite which is aluminium phyllosilicate clay with a negative charge, Isinglass; a collagen derived from fish that carries a positive charge and Kieselsol/gelatine which is a fining agent utilizing both a positive and negative charge. 3. 0- Aim:The general aim of this scientific investigation is to assess the efficiency and clarification capabilities of three difference fining agents including; Bentonite, Isinglass and Kieselsol/Gelatine. The results obtained from the wines treated with fining agents will be contrasted to those obtained from the wine without the presence of a fining agent. This will indicate any trends in the data as to which fining agent is most efficient and if there is a great difference between the rate of clarification of the wines subject to chemical fining as opposed to the wine subject to natural clarification under the influence of gravity alone.By testing parameters such as Ph, Turbidity, Sediment level, Alcohol content and Electrical conductivity some relationships between the results obtained and variables will be analysed to justify the efficiency of the flocculation agents. 4. 0- Hypothesis: It can be hypothesised that all three fining agents will have noticeably different effects on the wine clarity. The ‘Kwik Clear’ agent is predicted to exhibit the greatest impact on clarification as it comprises of both Kieselsol and Gelatine which are agents of opposite charges.This will hypothetically create more lees as the negative and positive charges together will in turn attract more suspended particulates of either electrostatic charge. On the other hand, the negatively charged Bentonite agent is also expected to demonstrate immense fining capacity due to its great molecular surface area that will prompt the adsorption of high amounts of positively charged particles. The Isinglass agent is ultimately expected to perform less desirably as it is by nature a delicate, positively c harged agent with weak fining abilities due to it fragile molecular structure.Finally, the wine without the presence of fining agents (the control), will undoubtabley show the least satisfactory results in terms of clarification. Some sedimentation may occur due to the natural impact of gravity however this will be limited and substantially less in comparison to the wine treated with fining agents. 5. 0- Safety Analysis Due to the topic of this assessment (wine making), the laboratory has been used extensively for nearly all aspects of this assignment including the creation of wine and testing. Safety precautions must therefore be exercised together with strict lab etiquette to prevent dangers arising.Students must remember at all times to abide by the rules which include: 1. Conducting one’s self sensibly and responsibly at all time especially when handling chemicals of potent nature. 2. No food or drinks to be brought into the laboratory to prevent the possibility of contam ination with harmful substances. 3. Long hair must be firmly tied back to reduce the risk of exposure to corrosive chemicals (or the risk of contaminating the wine). 4. Safety goggles, aprons, lab coats and gloves should be worn at all times to minimise the risk of body exposure to chemicals especially the eyes. . All experimental instructions must be read and understood precisely before conducting the experiment. 6. Sitting on top of the laboratory benches is prohibited. 7. Sitting on chairs while performing chemical experiments is forbidden. 8. The labels of chemicals utilized must always be read so that one is aware of the risks and nature of the particular chemical. 9. Extreme caution must be taken when handling glass apparatus to ensure no breakage. 10. Any breakage or chemical spills must be immediately reported to the teacher so that the risk may be quickly contained. 11.Carrying chemicals or glass across the room is not advisable and carries a great degree of risk. 12. Runni ng whilst in the premises is strictly forbidden 13. All students must wear closed in shoes to protect feet from spills that may run down the benches. 14. All individuals must be aware of the nearest fire exits and have an understanding of how to use the fire blanket in case of emergency. 15. Any skin contact with chemicals must be quickly reported to the teacher and subsequently washed under running water for 20 minutes or the eye bath when contact has occurred with the eyes. 16.Any instructions given by the teacher must be followed without hesitation. Note: During the course of the wine making, student are required to perform titrations which require the handling of some extremely noxious chemicals including carcinogens, potent acids and allergens that must by all means be handled with immense care. Many chemicals also have the tendency to cause problems with the respiratory system when inhaled thus any chemical must be distanced from the nose or mouth. 6. 0- Equipment and Material s. Initial wine making: Supplied by school 1. 5L Demijohn with stopper (fermenter) 2.Air-Lock 3. Plastic bucket 4. Wine making yeast 5. Tartaric acid 0. 5tsp 6. Nutrient (Diammonium Sulfate, Ammonium Sulfate or Ammonia Phosphate) 7. Sodium Metabisulphite wash solution (0. 5tsp in 0. 5L of water) 8. Campden tablets 9. Pectinase 10. Funnel 11. Sleeve 12. Plastic champagne cork 13. Plastic tubing 14. Balloon 15. Cottonwool 16. Hydrometer 17. Vinometer 18. 100mg Vitamin C tablets as preservatives Initial wine making: Supplied by student 1. Tea towel 2. 6-8 very ripe bananas 3. 150g Sultanas 4. 8kg very ripe fruit (oranges for this group) 5. 3 tea bags 6. 7x 750mL Wine bottlesAdding/preparing the fining agents: 1. Bentonite (Brewcraft) (solid form) 2. Isinglass (Brewcraft) (liquid form) 3. Kieselsol/Gelatine (Kwik Clear) (liquid form) 4. 2x small beakers 5. 1x 0. 1mL increment glass pipette and 1x medium 1mL increment glass pipette. 6. Electronic scales 7. Plastic milkshake cup (to blend Bentonite) 8. Electric blender 9. Distilled water Testing the wine for all parameters: 1. PH meter 2. Hydrometer 3. Vinometer 4. Turbidity tube 5. EC meter 6. Ruler or tape measure (for sediment measurement) 7. Wine samples 8. 4x beakers 250mL 9. 1x large measuring cylinder 10.Distilled water 11. Disinfectant solution (Sodium percarbonate) 12. Funnel 13. Gloves Performing the titration for alcohol concentration: 1. 10mL wine sample 2. 60mL of Potassium Dichromate 3. 100mL Standard sodium thiosulphate solution (0. 1M) 4. 30mL of 40% sulphuric acid 5. 6 g Potassium Iodide 6. 250mL distilled water 7. starch indicator (starch solution, freshly made) 8. 10mL pipette 9. 2 ? 20mL pipettes 10. pipette filter 11. 250mL volumetric ? ask 12. 3 ? 250mL conical ? asks with stoppers 13. 10mL measuring cylinder 14. small funnel 15. burette and stand 16. white tile 17. hot water bath 8. thermometer 19. spatula 20. electronic balance 21. safety glasses 7. 0- Procedures/Methods 7. 1- Initial wine ma king procedure: 1. Pour sachets of yeast into a 750mL bottle with the addition of 2 tbsp sugar, 0. 5 tbsp acid and half-fill the bottle with water placing a balloon over the neck when finished. 2. Fill the bottle with water when the balloon has popped up. Replace the balloon afterwards. 3. Once the balloon ‘pops up’ a second time, put the bottle in the fridge. 4. Wash bucket, knife, working surface and all fruit with sodium metabisulphite solution. Avoid rinsing fruit! 5.Remove any really bad parts off the fruit. (it’s not a problem if the fruits are mildly squashed or discoloured). 6. Chop the fruit into approximately six pieces each and place into bucket. 7. Add/mix the following into the fruit: 0. 75 tbsp acid, 0. 75 tbsp nutrients, 0. 75 tbsp Pectinase or 7. 5 drops Pectinol, 7. 5mL Sodium metabisulphite, 150g sultanas, 6-8 bananas, 3 tea bags and 7. 5L water. 8. Leave to rest for 24 hours. 9. Once 24 hours have passed, ass half of the bottle of yeast from st ep 3 and 750g sugar to the bucket. Stir well, then put a plate on top of the fruit. This will keep it in the liquid.The whole thing should be covered with a damp towel. 10. Add an additional 1. 5 tbsp of sugar to the yeast bottle and fill with water. Replace the balloon in the process. 11. Begin stirring the bucket with fruit once a day for 3-4 days consecutively. 12. The funnel, strainer and fermenter must be washed with sodium metabisulphite solution for adequate disinfection. 13. Transfer the liquid contents of the bucket into the fermenter using the funnel and discard any solids in the process. 14. Any remaining liquid must be placed in bottles, stoppered with cottonwool in the neck and placed in the fridge. 5. Use sodium metabisulphite to fill the airlock to half of each chamber. 16. After a week has passed, use PVC tubing to transfer the liquid at the top into the bucket, ensuring the lees (sediment) is left at the bottom during siphoning. 17. Discard the lees, rinse out the f ermenter and then replace the liquid back into the fermenter. Use bottles from step 14 to top up the fermenter as needed. Taste and add 150 g of sugar if it is too dry. Also add 5mg of Campden tablets. (Warning: Campden sulphur allergies) 18.Repeat step 16-17 (which is a process called racking) about once a week for 3-4 weeks. If sugar added, a record must be kept of the exact quantity. 19. When clearing from the top of the wine has initiated, the airlock chambers are evening out and the hydrometer reading is between 1005 and 995, repeat step 16. 20. Taste the samples. If a sweet wine is desired, put 100-150g of sugar in a saucepan and cover with wine fermenter. Heats until the sugar has dissolved and then gradually add this to the wine until the desired balance of sweetness is obtained. 21.Add 10ml of Sodium metabisulphite and 1000mg of orange flavoured vitamin C (as a preservative). 22. Wash bottles and cork in the solution of sodium metabisulphite and shake out but don’t r inse. 23. Put wine into bottles and cork storing it in a cool dark place. **(refer to journal for information about the key ingredients of the wine making process) 7. 2- Addition of fining agents including ratio calculation: Isinglass Note: The wine used for each fining agent was racked moments before adding the agents. This ensured that any sediment formation with the fining agents would be easily noticeable and recordable. . Read the instructions on the back of the Brewcraft Isinglass bottle. These instructions stipulate that 10mL are mixed in 25L of wine with the 10mL firstly mixed in a 250mL aliquot before being added to the bulk. 2. The wine bottles used in this experiment contained 750mL of wine therefore calculations were performed to find how much Isinglass must be added to 750mL. 3. Firstly divide 10mL by 25,000mLwhich equal 4Ãâ€"10-4. 4. Secondly, multiply 4Ãâ€"10-4 by 750mL which equals 0. 3mL (this is the amount of Isinglass to be used for 750mL of wine). 5.To find how much of the 750mL of wine must be used to initially pre mix the isinglass before adding it to the bulk, the following was calculated: 25,000mL divided by 250mL equals 100; 750mL divided by 100 is equal to 7. 5. Therefore 7. 5mL of wine must be mixed with 0. 3mL of Isinglass before adding it to the 750mL bulk. 6. Extract 7. 5mL of wine using a small disinfected pipette placing this aliquot in a small beaker. 7. Extract 0. 3mL of isinglass with a small disinfected pipette and place it in the beaker with the 7. 5mL aliquot. 8. Mix the fining agent in the aliquot of wine for a few minutes making sure to swirl it as well. . Using a funnel, replace the mixed aliquot back into the 750mL bulk. 10. Label the bottle, indicating the fining agent used and the dosage. 11. Place cottonwool in the neck and return bottle to the fridge. **(refer to journal for information regarding Isinglass) 7. 2- Addition of fining agents including ratio calculation: Kieselsol/Gelatine (Kwik Clear) 1. Read the in structions on the side of the Kwik Clear box. These instructions specify that 2mL of Bottle A (containing Kieselsol) must be added per gallon of wine. 2mL of Bottle B (containing Gelatine) must also be added per gallon. . Simple calculations were conducted to find how much of Bottle A and B is to be use for the 750mL bottles. Firstly 1 Galloon equals 4. 5 litres therefore 4500mL divided by 750mL equals 6. 3. 2mL divided by 6 equals 0. 33mL hence, 0. 33mL of both Bottle A and B is to be mixed into 750mL of wine. 4. Premix is not required for Kwik Clear therefore the fining agents can be directly added to the 750mL bulk. 5. Using a small disinfected pipette, take 0. 33mL of Bottle A and place it directly into the 750mL wine. 6. Stir well, then wait approximately 30 minutes before adding Bottle B. . Using a small disinfected pipette, extract 0. 33mL of Bottle B and place it into the bulk. 8. Mix well then label the bottle to include the name of the fining agent in use and the dosage. 9 . Stopper the bottle with cottonwool and return it to the fridge until ready for testing. **(refer to journal for basic information about Kwik clear (Kieselsol/ Gelatine fining) 7. 3- pH testing: 1. Put on gloves and gather all necessary equipment. 2. Thoroughly disinfect the four beakers, the tip of the pH meter and the funnel with sodium percarbonate solution. 3.Run distilled water over the tip of the pH meter until a neutral ph of between 6. 5-7. 5 is reached (this will ensure that the pH meter is configured properly). 4. Carefully pour an adequate sample of wine in a beaker. 5. Slowly dip the tip of the pH meter and leave it in the wine until the pH value on the monitor becomes constant. 6. Record the value and return the sample of wine to its corresponding bottle using a funnel (make sure the sample is returned from the bottle it was taken from as it would be very undesirable to accidently mix the agents. This would corrupt the whole experiment). 7.Repeat steps 2-6 for all the wines. **(refer to journal for basic information regarding Ph-(power of hydrogen) 7. 4- Vinometer testing: 1. Put on gloves and gather all necessary equipment. 2. Make sure to disinfect the four beakers, the vinometer and the funnel with sodium percarbonate solution. 3. The vinometer testing requires handling of the wine with hands therefore the hands must be disinfected prior to testing or if gloves are worn, make sure the gloves are disinfected as well especially if used in prior tests. 4. While holding the vinometer over a beaker, pour wine into it so that the wine covers the entire vinometer. . Apply pressure using the thumb on the vinometer opening as though pushing the wine in (this will ensure any bubble formations are removed). 6. Once confident that no bubbles are evident flip the vinometer upside down allowing the wine to fall into the beaker. 7. Bring the vinometer up to eye level and read the scale after the fluid has settled (the level is sometimes hard to see as it is very thin). 8. Record the value; this is usually in %v/v alcohol. 9. Repeat steps 2-8 for all the wines. **(refer to journal for basic information regarding Vinometer (% alcohol concentration). . 5- Hydrometer testing: 1- Put on gloves and gather all necessary equipment. 2. Wash all four beakers, the hydrometer, the measuring cylinder and the funnel with sodium percarbonate solution. 3. Carefully fill the cylinder to about 80% with a sample of wine. 4. Gently lower the hydrometer into the wine making sure it does not touch the bottom or the side of the cylinder. 5. Record where the surface of the wine contacts the hydrometer. 6. Repeat step 2-5 for each wine ***(Note: The Hydrometer testing was done incorrectly thus giving inaccurate results throughout each trial.This mistake was only noticed after testing was concluded therefore there was no way of repeating the results. All results obtained a hydrometer reading of 1. 030 which indicates there has been a general mistake with the pr ocedure. The group decided not to use the Hydrometer due to this flaw)*** 7. 6- Turbidity testing (with tube): 1. Place gloves on both hands and gather all necessary equipment. 2. Wash the turbidity tube and funnel in the disinfectant sodium percarbonate solution. 3. Carefully pour wine into the turbidity tube by small increments at a time. 4.Look for when the black lines at the bottom of the tube become slightly visible just enough to see the lines. 5. Record the value at which the lines are slightly visible (this is the turbidity in NTU). 6. Repeat steps 2-5 for each wine. **(refer to journal for information about Turbidity) 7. 7 Sediment level (with ruler): 1. Carefully hold the wine bottle against and angle of strong light until the lees is visible (making sure not to disturb the sediment greatly). 2. Use a ruler to measure the sediment level from the bottom of the bottle to the point at which it finishes. . Record the results to the nearest mm. 4. Repeat step 1-3 for each wine (Note: Sediment measurement should be tested first before anything else so that the lees is not disturbed from movement 7. 8 Electric Conductivity (EC meter): 1. Put on gloves and gather all necessary equipment. 2. Thoroughly disinfect the four beakers, the tip of the EC meter and the funnel with sodium percarbonate solution. 3. Run distilled water over the tip of the EC meter until a reading of 0 is obtained (this will ensure that the EC meter is configured properly). 4.Carefully pour an adequate sample of wine in a beaker. 5. Slowly dip the tip of the EC meter and leave it in the wine until the Electrical conductivity value on the monitor becomes constant. 6. Record the value and return the sample of wine to its corresponding bottle using a funnel (make sure the sample is returned from the bottle it was taken from as it would be very undesirable to accidently mix the agents. This would corrupt the whole experiment). 7. Repeat steps 2-6 for all the wines. **(refer to journal for in formation about EC (Electric Conductivity) 7. EC Conversion to TDS using mathematical formula: 1. The formula stipulates that TDS (ppm or mg/L) = F x EC where F is a factor of 0. 6 and EC is the electrical conductivity in Microsiemens per centimetre. 2. The results taken by the EC meter in class are given in millisiemens therefore to covert to microsiemens simply multiply by 1000. 3. Take the number in microsiemens and multiply it by a factor of 0. 6 as stated by the formula. 4. This is the measurement in TDS (ppm). 7. 10 Alcohol Titration method: 1. Place a 10mL aliquot of wine in a 250mL volumetric flask ( using a small pipette). 2.Distilled water is then used to fill the volume up to the 250mL mark. 3. Take a 20mLaliquot from the 250mL solution and place it in a conical flask. 4. Step 3 must be repeated twice so that there are three flasks to use in 3 separate trials. 5. To every flask a 20mL aliquot of 0. 04 Molar Potassium Dichromate is added. 6. 10mL of 40% sulphuric acid is a dded to every flask with the aid of a measuring cylinder and the teacher (the teacher will have to do this step due to the potency of the acid). 7. Each flask should be stoppered loosely and heated in a water bath at 45-50*c. (water bath must not exceed 50*c). . Once 10 minutes have passed, remove the flasks and add 2 g of Potassium Iodine to all flasks. 9. Fill the burette with Thiosulphate solution (0. 1 Molar). 10. Begin the titration, titrating the contents of the flask with the 0. 1M Thiosulphate solution. When the brown colour of the titrated solution becomes green add 1-2mL Starch. The equivalence point is noticed when the solution turns from blue to light green. 11. Record the result of the titres. 7. 11 Alcohol titration calculations: **(Refer to journal for titration calculations) 8. 0- Results and Data Analysis: 8. 1- graph 1 – PH over time:The above graph displays the pH obtained for each wine over the 5 trials conducted. Initially before adding the clearing agent s, the wine was tested to be at pH 4 as indicated at ‘trial 0’. After the clearing agents were added the pH remained at 4 however the Isinglass fined wine increased to pH 4. 3. Standard wine must be kept at a pH range between 3. 2 and 4. 1 therefore anything over 4. 1 raises alarms and action must be taken to lower the pH using acidic substances. Ultimately 1g of Tartaric acid was added to all wines during trial 1 and subsequently resulted in the decrease in pH observed from trial 1-3.Trial 3 was the point at which the pH of all four wines was recorded at a constant 3. 2 indicating that the Tartaric acid was successful at lowering the pH by almost 1 for all four wines. From trial 3-5 the pH of all the wines is seen to fluctuate once again this is due to the fact that the effects of the tartaric acid have ceased therefore the pH system increases and decreases accordingly as it tries to find a new state of equilibrium. This trend can be related to Le Chateliers principle which states that â€Å"If a system at equilibrium is disturbed, then the system adjusts itself so as to minimise the disturbance.At the end of trial 5 all four wines fell between a stable pH range however following the low pH of trial 3, Isinglass fluctuated to pH 3. 7 as seen in trial 5. This raises the possibility that the pH of Isinglass may have continued to raise. 8. 2- Graph 2 – Alcohol %v/v over time The above is the comparison of alcohol content for all the wines over the 5 trials conducted. All wines clearly tend to show a percentage of alcohol between 4-6% throughout the trials with the overall average being 4. 2%. At the end of trial 5, all four wines recorded a stable 4%v/v alcohol however this is unusual considering that wines are typically 7-14%v/v.The 11%v/v recorded for the control at trial 3 is believed to be due to error as there is no justifiable reason for such an instantaneously high fluctuation. It is seen that all wines containing fining agents record ed an alcohol level that was similar to each other; this was ultimately expected as fining agents do not typically affect alcohol level. These readings from the vinometer can ultimately be relied upon as alternative alcohol testing through the more accurate titration method showed that the alcohol level was at approximately 5% which is the most common value presented throughout the vinometer testing. . 3- Graph 3- Sediment level over time Displayed above is the graphical analysis of the sediment level recorded over time for each wine. There is a clear indication that the wine finned with Bentonite produced the most lees followed by the Gelatine/Kieselsol and then the Isinglass which accumulated the least amount of lees out of the three clearing agents. Overall however, the control (wine without fining agent) showed a very limited accumulation of sediment therefore indicating that sedimentation rate is slower without a presence of a clearing agent.Interestingly the Bentonite also rec orded instant sedimentation of 1. 5cm for the first trial which is more than twice as much as that of the Gelatine/Kieselsol and three times more than the Isinglass and control. The control also displayed the slowest rate of accumulation of lees with a 0. 1cm increase occurring once every 2 trials. Some results show a drop in sediment level; this should ultimately be ignored as the measurement of sediment encompasses an uncertainty of (+- 0. 5cm) therefore the recorded drop in sediment may just be an indication of no change. . 4 – Graph 4- Difference in sediment level over time: The above graph has been constructed to aid in the interpretation of the previous (Graph 3). This displays the difference in sediment level for each wine from trial to trial. Ultimately the total increase of sediment for Bentonite over the 5 trials was +1. 9cm (assuming that the –0. 1 is treated as a no increase rather than a decrease). The Kieselsol/Gelatine recorded a total increase of +1. 6c m. Isinglass obtained a total of +0. 8 and the Control showed a +0. 7 total increase over the 5 trial periods. 8. – Graph 5- Turbidity (NTU) over time: The above ‘turbidity over time’ graph ultimately displays the extent at which the wines were cleared. The results obtained for turbidity show the same trend that is seen in the sediment accumulation graph in terms of the fining agent performance. Bentonite was most effective at clearing the wine, bringing the turbidity down from 600 to 250NTU followed by Kieselsol/Gelatine which was successful in a turbidity reduction from 600 to 300 NTU. Isinglass again presents itself as the weakest clearing agent only clearing the wine from 600 to approximately 450NTU.The Control indicated only a slight decrease in turbidity of 50NTU in total. Notice that major reduction in turbidity for all four wines ceases from trial 3 onwards, this trend was also recorded in the sediment graph. Another trend that is seen in this graph and t he sediment accumulation graph alike is that Bentonite again appears to have the greatest initial impact out of all the fining agents. *The lack in results for trial 1 is due to not having the turbidity tube available at that time. 8. 6- Graph 6- Electric Conductivity over time:Electrical conductivity was tested purely because it can give an indication of TDS through a conversion factor. Again what is immediately noticed is that on the 5th trials, Bentonite had the greatest overall drop in EC/TDS. Followed by Kieselsol/Gelatine then Isinglass. The control showed the least overall reduction of EC/TDS and this is a trend seen in the previous Turbidity and Sediment graphs. (Refer to Journal for raw data tables and the conversion from EC to TDS) 9. 0- Discussion: Through the analysis of the results obtained, many justifications can be drawn as to the fining agent that had the greatest effect on clarification.By graphing the primary trends in turbidity and sediment level, the initial hyp othesis was ultimately rendered incorrect to some extent. It was hypothesised that the Kieselsol/Gelatine would have the greatest fining ability due to the agent being composed of both positive and negative charges. This however was not the case when the results were analysed. Ultimately the Bentonite was recorded to have the greatest fining ability followed by the Kieselsol/Gelatine and then the Isinglass which as predicted, presented itself as the weakest of the three fining agents.The Bentonite agent visibly resulted in the most sediment accumulation, recording a total of 1. 8cm of lees and a turbidity reduction of 350NTU in total. Interestingly, Bentonite also exhibited a very fast rate of efficiency with an accumulation of 1. 5cm of sediment in the very first trial (Graph 3). This was more than double the sediment level of Kieselsol/Gelatine and triple the amount recorded for Isinglass. Similar trends in rapid efficiency are seen in (Graph 5) where Bentonite is noticed to reduc e turbidity by half in the very first trial.These superior clearing abilities stem from the complex molecular composition of the substance. Bentonite is comprised of a multitude of small silicate platelets that are separated by a layer of water molecules (Zoecklein, B. 1988). During the initial Bentonite hydration performed before adding it to the wine, these platelets repel each other and subsequently pop apart. As this occurs, the platelets rearrange and immense swelling takes place which results in an enormous surface area (refer to appendix figure 2).It is this enlarged surface area that grants Bentonite the ability to absorb a greater amount of suspended matter. Further evidence shows that there are more molecular properties that can justify the dominant fining capabilities of the Bentonite agent. Foremost, Bentonite is renowned for its high cation exchange capacity (binding ability) (Catarino, S. 2007). Typically there is a tremendously fast reaction time between positively ch arged protein particulates and the negatively charge Bentonite.It is common for three-quarters of proteins to react with Bentonite within the first minute of contact (Zoecklein, B. 1988). Protein contents from an initial 50-100mg/L can be cleared to less than 10mg/L in most circumstances therefore this high clearing capacity is another reason why such elevated amounts of sediment deposits were recorded during testing. Another aspect to consider is the relationship between ethanol concentration and Bentonite. Scientific research has suggested that there is a proportional relationship between ethanol concentration and the efficiency of the Bentonite fining.This is due primarily to the fact that ethanol separates the silicate layers within the structure therefore allowing larger particles to adsorb to the surface (Harberton, J. 2009). Basically out of the three fining agents, Bentonite is the only one that exhibits this relationship with alcohol thus its flocculation ability is advanta ged when placed in an ethanol rich solution such as the wine. What can further be associated with the Bentonite’s vast flocculation ability is that the agent is not exclusively of a negative charge.Interestingly, the molecular platelet edges are comprised of a slight positive charge (AMCOL, 2005) (refer to Appendix figure 4). This gives the Bentonite an additional aptitude to bind to some negatively charged particles therefore providing a wider range of clearing potential. When looking back on the results obtained, the hypothesis was validated to the extent that the wine without a fining agent (the control) showed least efficiency in clarification. As seen in Graph 3 (sediment level over time), the control not only accumulated very small amounts of sediment but also did this at a very slow rate.An increase of 0. 1cm is noticed only once every two trials whereas the fining agents show a substantial increase nearly every single trial. The same goes for the turbidity reduction ( Graph 5) where the control is seen to take approximately three trial periods to attain a decrease of a mere 50NTU. Although the control showed signs of clearing due to gravity, it is substantially slower than that of the fining agents. A scientific principle set out by physicist George Stokes in 1851, aids in the conceptualisation of why the fining agents are more efficient in sedimentation.Stokes’ law states that the rate of sedimentation of a spherical particle is directly proportional to the difference in density of the particle and the liquid, the acceleration due to gravity and the radius of the particle (Stoyanov, P. 1980). By the application of this law, it stands to reason that a fining agent causes swifter sedimentation as it increases the radius of the particles through electrostatic binding and this in turn causes the particles to have a greater density ultimately increasing the rate of clarification It was also initially hypothesised that Isinglass would perform l east efficiently out of the three fining agent.This was confirmed through the data analysis which showed that Isinglass produced three time less sediment than Bentonite and only reduced turbidity by 150NTU unlike Kieselsol/Gelatine which reduced turbidity by 300NTU and Bentonite which resulted in a 350NTU reduction. Isinglass was ultimately not anticipated to have great fining abilities due to its gentle nature which renders it more suitable for wine polishing rather than heavy clearing (Chorniak, J. 2007). According to external scientific sources, the overall fining rate of Isinglass stands at a low 0. 2 – 0. 1g/L-1 therefore adding justification as to the low sediment yields recorded for Isinglass in this chemistry experiment. There is however another biochemical issue that may have attributed to the underperformance of the Isinglass agent. Collagens such as isinglass are typically dependant on temperature for chemical stability. At high temperature most collagens begin to decompose on a molecular scale. Isinglass starts to denature at a relatively low temperature of approximately 10 °C.This denaturing process results in a reduction of molecular weight which consequently weakens the fining ability (Hornsey, I. 2007). Throughout the course of this experiment, the wines tested were exposed to temperature of over 18 °C hence leading to the presumption that this may have contributed to isinglass’ lack in performance. When analysing the data to a greater extent, there was a very crucial trend that was established which may have affected the performance of all the clearing agents. pH is ultimately seen to have an inversely proportion relationship with the binding ability of the fining agents.As pH increases, the strength of the electrostatic attract between the fining agent and particles is subsequently decreased. This principle is extensively evident for all three fining agents tested in this experiment. Notice that after trial 3 (graph 5) the t urbidity no longer shows improvements for both Bentonite and Isinglass and only exhibits a minimal improvement for Kieselsol/Gelatine. This is also notice for the sediment level (graph 3) which shows only very slight increases in sediment accumulation after trial 3.This reduced performance after trial 3 may be due to the fact that the pH of all wines began to fluctuate from trial 3 onwards (refer to graph 1). Overall it is seen that the clearing agents performed best when the pH was reducing during trial 1 and 2 and started to perform poorly when the pH began to fluctuate from trial 3. To comprehend this phenomenon it is important to understand the concept of the Isoelectric point (pl). Basically all proteins or other suspended particles have a certain pH at which the particles carry no net charge.If the pH of a solution is too high or near the isoelectric point, the particulates will not be sufficient in electrostatic attraction because at a high pH, the molecules carry an equal nu mber of positive and negative charges resulting in neutralisation (Zoecklein, B. 1988). This is also true for the fining agents which lose electrostatic charge when there is even a slight increase in pH. Recent studies that tested the net charge of isinglass in different pH medium show that even a small increase of 0. 5 pH resulted in the reduction of approximately half the net charge of the isinglass agent (Ward, I. 000) (refer to appendix figure 3). This evidence adds credibility to the justification that the rise in pH may have indeed contributed to the trend noticed in all the fining agents. Alternatively however there is the possibility that the fining agents simply reached their capacity and began decreasing in efficiency after trial 3 indicating that more fining must be added. Overall through the in-depth interpretation of the data; the performance of the fining agents can be justified and links can be draws as to the agent that performed the best and worst (the Bentonite and Isinglass respectively).However although this experiment was successful in giving reasonably good results it is undoubtabley encompassed by multitudinous amounts of human error and uncertainty that may render it flawed to some extent. The major flaw to this experiment is that sediment was not siphoned after every trial. The group initially chose not to siphon the lees so that results could be easily recorded. However what was not realised is that every time the wine was poured out for testing, the deposit of sediment was resuspended into the wine therefore may have resulted in highly inaccurate results especially for turbidity.Another associated human error is that members from the group at some stages touched the wine with bare hands that were not disinfected especially during Vinometer testing. This holds a great risk that the wine may have become contaminated thus predisposed to bacterial manifestation which would render the experiment invalid. Gloves were only used after the 2n d trial period once the group noticed the risk of contamination. Other possible sources of contamination include the fact that some equipment were not washed with sodium metabisulphite before making contact with the wine, this again posses high risk of bacterial growth.At one stage there was speculation whether the wine had indeed contracted a bacterial strain. This is due to the hazy/cloudy appearance of the wine despite the extensive fining that was performed. Although turbidity was slightly reduced by the fining agent, the wine still seemed awfully turbid. This could be a sign of a bacterial colony which causes a liquid to appear murky and is ultimately untreatable by the fining process. When expert opinion was consulted about the wine, it was concluded that the turbid appearance was not due to bacteria.If the wine had been infected, it would have had a very ‘off’ taste which was not indicated during the weekly wine tasting. What must be noted is that because the win e in this group was created with oranges, it will never have a very clear appearance due to the thickness and dark colouration of the orange contents. Common wines made from grapes are naturally very clear due to the transparency of the grape juice by nature. It was therefore presumed that the turbid look of the wine was due to the natural composition of the oranges it was made from.If this experiment was to be performed again, many improvements must be made to ensure more accurate and valid results. It is recommended that more emphasis must be placed into contamination control and management during the winemaking and wine testing period. This will ensure no foreign material spoil the validity of the experiment. Also there was major uncertainty in the equipment used. Firstly the ruler used to measure sediment carries a +/- 0. 5cm uncertainty which is major especially when measuring something so small such as sedimentation deposit.Maybe a more accurate measuring tool with a smaller s cale can be used in the future for the lees measurement. Furthermore all testing including pH, Turbidity, Vinometer etc were only done once every trial period whereas it is advisable to always test a sample 3 times in a row to ensure consistency in the results. This was not done in this experiment as time restraints did not allow for repeated testing. If these simple improvements can be implemented for future testing, the results will be more accurate which will in turn provide more credibility to the findings. 10- Conclusion:The process of wine making and testing was a long and arduous task that involved many procedures. Although there were some minor flaws involved with the testing, the experiment was considered an overall success. The aim from the start was to see which flocculation agent would have the greatest effect on wine clarification and through extensive testing the results clearly indicated the superior fining agent. The Bentonite was undoubtabley the most powerful flocc ulation chemical and resulted in the greatest reduction in turbidity and also the greatest increase in sedimentation.The trends and patterns in the data were evaluated and scientific justifications were made as to why each fining agent performed to the extent that was witnessed. Ultimately relationships between variables were established as explanations that coincide with the performance of the fining agents. Wine pH, alcohol level and temperature are concluded to have a drastic effect on the flocculation abilities of the fining agents. These variables must be monitored and adjusted accordingly as the efficiency of the clearing agents are found to be very dependent upon their values.For future reference, pH is seen to affect the electrostatic bonding abilities of the substances, alcohol levels have a proportional relationship to the fining abilities of Bentonite and temperature (either to low or to high) affects the efficiency of the chemical fining process especially that of the Is inglass. With this in mind it can be concluded that the fining agents did help in the clarification of the wine however were affected by many variables that must be taken into account if this experiment was to be performed in future. By Mario Mitov 11- Appendix: {FIGURE 1}.Below: Diagram of the electrostatic flocculation process exhibited by most fining agents. {FIGURE 2}, Below: A depiction of the Bentonite surface area expansion that is initiated during the hydration stage. This is one of the main reasons why Bentonite is such a powerful flocculation agent. From left to right; Water molecules between the silicate layers, Layers then pop apart during hydration, the platelets rearrange and swelling takes place, once rearrangement has occurred the surface area is greater than before hydration. Diagram sourced from (Zoecklein, B. 1988) FIGURE 3} Below: Scientific studies conducted for isinglass that shows an increase in pH results in electric charge depletion thus weakening the fining agent. {FIGURE 4}, Below: A depiction of the Bentonite molecular structure, Notice that the edges are +ve (positively charged) and the inner area is predominantly of a negative charge (-ve). Because Bentonite has slightly positive charged edges it is advantaged in its fining ability. Image sourced from http://www. amcoldetergents. com/Resources/How%20Bentonite%20Softens%20Through%20the%20Wash. pdf 12- References: Books (alphabetical order): Biers,W.The Archaeology Of Greece. New York. Cornell University Press 1980. Retrieved June 8th 2011 Boulton, R. (1996). Principles and Practises Of Winemaking. New York. Chapman & Hall 1996. Retrieved June 9th 2011. Fugelsang, C. (1997). Wine Microbiology. New York. Chapman & Hall 1997. Retrieved June 9th 2011. Smith, D. (2009). Chemistry In Use. Australia. McGraw Hill Australia. Retrieved on multiple dates throughout research. Stoyanov, P. (1980). Medical Chemistry and Biophysics Concepts. Bulgaria. CIELA publishers. Retrieved June 14th 2011 fr om home (published in Bulgarian but translated).Internet (alphabetical order): Adams, P. (2005). Grape glut sours wine industry. Retrieved 8th of June 2011 from http://www. abc. net. au/landline/content/2005/s1349757. htm AMCOL,(2005). Bentonite: A technical overview. Retrieved June 14th 2011 from http://www. amcoldetergents. com/Resources/How%20Bentonite%20Softens%20Through%20the%20Wash. pdf Catarino, S. (2007). Effects Of Bentonite Characteristics On The Elemental Composition Of Wine. Retrieved June 13th 2011 from http://pubs. acs. org/doi/abs/10. 1021/jf0720180 (downloaded scientific article) Chorniak, J. 2007). A Clearer Understanding Of Fining Agents. Retrieved June 15th 2011 from http://www. winemakermag. com/stories/techniques/article/indices/12-clarityfiltration/26-a-clearer-understanding-of-fining-agents Guerra, B. (2008). Choosing A Fining Agent. Retrieved June 11th 2011 from http://www. newworldwinemaker. com/articles/view? id=342 Harbertson, J. (2009). A Guide To The Fin ing Of Wine. Retrieved June 13th 2011 from http://cru. cahe. wsu. edu/CEPublications/em016/em016. pdf Hornsey, I. (2007). The Chemistry and Biology of Winemaking. Royal Society Of Chemistry.

Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases: HIV

Epidemiology & Communicable Diseases HIV or the Human Deficiency virus is like other viruses including the flu, but the one thing that makes this virus so different than any other is that the body is unable to clear this one out completely. Once someone is infected, there is no cure. Over time, HIV can also hide or mask itself in the body's cells. The cells within a person's body that fght off infection are called CD4 cells or T cells. HIV attacks these cells and copies or replicates itself inside these cells, then destroys them.HIV over time will estroy so many of these cells that the body is unable to fght off infection anymore. When this starts happening, AIDS or Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome happens which is the final stage of HIV. HIV is transmitted through someone's blood or bodily fluids which can encompass semen, breast milk, vaginal fluids, and rectal mucous (AIDS. GOV, 2013) and usually it is passed from one person to another through sexual contact; however, HIV can al so be transmitted through childbirth or IV drug use. Healthcare workers are also at risk from infected bodily fluids.Fluids from an nfected person can deliver the virus to someone else's bloodstream. Within 2-4 weeks, and up to as late as 3 months, exposure to HIV can happen with a sudden onset of flu like symptoms including fever, chills, rash, night sweats, muscle aches, sore throat, fatigue, swollen lymph nodes or ulcers in the mouth (CDC, 2013). Sometimes no signs or symptoms of infection are present in someone with HIV. Certain individuals may feel sick as HIV turns into AIDS or have occasional bouts of sickness, but not really know or feel they are infected.When HIV progresses to HIV, he flu like sign and symptoms mentioned earlier can become far more severe. Many of the complications stemming from HIV are opportunistic infections, which happen in patients with a weakened immune system (CDC, 2013). â€Å"Some of these opportunistic infections include tuberculosis, salmonellos is, cytomeglaovirus, candidiasis, cryptococcal meningitis, toxoplasmosis, cryptosporiosis, Wasting Syndrome, neurological problems, and kidney disease (Mayo Clinic, 2013). Specific skin cancers including Kaposi's Sarcoma and lymphomas also happen in patients who are HIV positive† (Mayo Clinic, 2013).Antivirals are the treatment for HIV and presently there is no known cure. Treatment most often involves combinations of different drugs to avoid creating strains of the virus that are immune to single drug treatments (Mayo Clinic, 2013). The number of CD4 or T cells monitors treatment response. The viral load should be undetectable while undergoing antiviral therapy. The count is checked when treatment starts and usually monitored every 3-6 months. Even if someone has an undetectable viral load, the spreading of HIV is still a possibility.According to estimates and numbers provided by the CDC, about one and half million people 13 years of age and younger is HIV positive. Demograph ics also show that almost 20% of people who are infected do not know they have the virus. The CDC estimates that now every year, there are about 50,000 new cases diagnosed (2013). At risk groups include gay men, bisexual people, and African Americans (CDC, ) Young Atrican American males are at greatest risk tor contracting HIV among various ethnicities and races (CDC, 2013).An individual's risk for HIV or social determinants of health related to HIV is income, education, geographic region, overty, gender orientation, early childhood experiences, and alcohol or substance abuse. The CDC states, â€Å"that by reducing the number od new HIV infections and improving the health and well-being of those already infected with HIV depends on changing the social determinants that place people at risk of infection† (CDC, 2-13). The epidemiological triangle of HIV consists of three things: the person, the causative agent, or the environment (Smith, 169).The causative agent that causes AID S is HIV or the virus itself. The host is a person in the case of HIV and the environment is the either the host or the agent, but a factor that influences interaction between the two. The epidemiological triangle consists of three things: the person, the causative agent, or the environment (Smith, 169). In the triangle for HIV, the agent that causes AIDS is HIV or the virus. The host is a person in the case of HIV. The environment is neither the host nor the agent, but something that influences interaction between the two (Smith, 169).The host factors for HIV include age, sex, ethnic background, race, sexual orientation, education, and economic status (Smith, 169). The agent actors or causative agent for HIV are the virus itself and the mode of transmission, life cycle and virulence of the virus (Smith, 169). The environmental factors for HIV include social and economic considerations including family, community, political organization, public policy, regulations, institutions, wor kplace, occupation, economic status, technology, mobility, housing population density, attitudes, customs, culture, health practices, health services (Smith 169-170).A community health nurse with an emphasis on HIV/AIDS would work in a community or public health setting, educating t risk groups about safe sex practices and the dangers of sharing needles. Ideally, the nurse would connect patients to support groups and services, teach patients or people in the community about the prevention of the spreading of the disease, and help administer treatments and medications. Some important issues that nurses are bringing to the forefront in todays world include implementing strategies to keep HIV patients engaged in routine HIV medical and nursing care, incorporating prevention research findings to help reduce transmission locally and globally, carrying out outine HIV testing in health care settings, ensuring access to antiretroviral drugs, and preparing for emerging issues in HIV care suc h as diabetes, liver disease, obesity and elder care† (Kirton, 2007, p. 8). The Global Fund to fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria is a national organization that channels a portion of its funds to the international financing for he fght against HIV and AIDS. It also gives funds to strengthening health systems, as most are inadequate to educate and inform communities and people about the prevention of HIV. Programs supported by the Global Fund give to communities with lifesaving ntiviral therapies and counseling on the prevention of the virus.